The French Revolution
Mens Costume
'The frock coat or tail-coat cat away at the front, had been introduced on a limited scale about ten years before the Revolution: now it is universally won throughout Europe and America for both formal and informal wear.
Tail-coats fell into two basic categories: those which were cut straight across the waist, in the style of present day 'tails,' and those which were cut away at and angle from a very high waist like today's morning suit. In the early 1790s the most fashionable coat was the square cut type, single-breasted with wide revers. towards the end of the decade these were largely replaced by the double-breasted coats of the same family which would be worn one of two ways: either they could be buttoned to the neck with the fabric lying flat across the chest, or only the bottom two buttons were fastened and the material at the top folded back to form revers. the coat was sometimes left completely unbuttoned, exposing the waistcoat. In the mid-1790s tails were often very long, falling to calf level but, after the turn of the century,the seldom reached below the back of the knee. They were generally cut with two pleats, each decorated at the top with a large flat button. Sleeves were wrist-length and quite tight-fitting, although some room was allowed for mobility at the armseye. The wide, turned-back cuffs popular in the mid-seventeenth century were abandoned but the buttons remained. Most coats were fitted with two cut-in pockets which flaps were situated at waist level on either side.
Tail-coats of the second category were originally designed for riding, but shortly after the turn of the century they were adapted for town wear, being made in finer fabrics. In fact it was this style which was destined to become the court costume of both Napoleon and George III.
Both style of coat lasted well into the nineteenth century and, in about 1810 they were joined by the bob-tailed coat. This is thought to have been of American origin. It was cut in exactly the same way as the square-cut tail-coat but with the point of the tail cut off in a straight line just below the buttocks. This was the first garment to resemble the contemporary suit jacket, but it was several decades before the fashion was consolidated.
Waistcoats could be either single or double-breasted and were generally cut straight across the waist level. Occasionally, they were slightly longer so that, when the coat was buttoned, a small area of the waistcoat was still visible. When worn with the cut-away coat, they were sometimes cut with a double V in front, very much in the fashion of the most contemporary waistcoats. Double-breasted waistcoats could be buttoned to the neck, or, like the coat, the upper material could be turned back to form revers which were often worn outside the collar of the coat itself. although the rich brocades and embroidery of the mid-eighteenth century had vanished from waistcoats, they were as a rule rather less austere than coats, frequently being decorated, for example, with a stripe.
When the waistcoat was turned back, it revealed the frilled front of the shirt underneath. Above the shirt, neck-stocks continued to be fashionable; some of these were stiff, as before, but many men achieved the same effect by wrapped a white cravat round their necks and tying it in a soft falling bow at the throat. the Incroyables, the dandies of late eighteenth-century France, wore enormous neckcloths which often engulfed the chin and sometimes even covered the mouth. In all cases, the stiff shirt collar was turned up inside the cravat, and its points were always visible against the jaw-line.
Breeches, normally of white satin, continues to be worn for formal dress throughout his period. They were skin-tight and fastened just below the knee with a simple row of buttons. For normal wear, however, they were abandoned in favour of pantaloons which were, if anything, even tighter and finished just below the calf. After the turn of the century they became full-length and gradually less tight. Unlike breeches, they were generally made of a kind of jersey which allowed greater mobility and did not wrinkle. They were cut quite high, and the waistband was generally covered by the bottom of the waistcoat. Most were fitted with two fob-pockets at the waist.
Both breeches and pantaloons were worn indoors with tight stockings, either white or patterned, and soft, heelless black leather pumps, decorated either with a simple silver buckle or a small ribbon bow. Sometimes a calf-length gaiter was worn over the top of the foot and the lower leg. For outdoor wear, boots were generally worn until the end of the century, These were short, seldom rising above the calf, with the top cut at an angle and decorated with braid and tassels. After 1800, however, longer and tighter-fitting boots came into fashion, similar to those of the mid-eighteenth century, with a turned-over top.
Although capes were still worn after the Revolution, the great-coat had finally established itself as the most fashionable outer-garment for men. Great-coats were cut in a very similar way to those of the proceeding period, and they were more often single than double-breasted. Most were fitted with small turned-over collar and several overlapping shoulder capes, a stye which offered admirable protection against the rain and survived as the coachman's box coat for several decades after it had ceased to be fashionable town-wear.
Perhaps the most immediately noticeable area of change in men's costume after 1790 was in hairstyles and hats. A few diehards continued to powder their hair and wear wigs, although these were of modest dimensions compared with the elaborate arrangements of the proceeding decade. Hair was now worn in its natural state and cut quite short. There was no particular style in the 1790s but the general effect was one of studied disorder. After 1800, however, the 'Brutus' cut became fashionable. Whether or not it was pioneered by Napoleon it is uncertain, but it is mostly readily identified. With its short curl brushed forward over the forehead, it was perhaps the only neo-classical element in the male costume, a style which - on the other hand - dominated the fashions of their female contemporaries.
After more than a century as the only headwear for men. the tricorne hat finally went out of fashion. Even the most conservative seem to have dropped it without question. It was replaces by one of two styles: for formal occasions there was the bicorne, again associated with Napoleon. This was a wide-brimmed, black hat cocked on two sides, sometimes decorated with feathers or some other ornament, but more often left totally plain. The other style, which was used for everyday wear, was the forerunner of the top-hat. Until 1800 it had a narrow, slightly curled brim and a crown which tapered towards the top. At the base of the crown it was decorated with a hat band and buck;e, and it was infact very similar to the Puritan hat of the seventeenth century. After 1800, the sides of the crown became almost parallel and the buckle was abandoned. Other accessories were virtually the same as they had been earlier in the century. Gloves were made of soft kid and fitted very closely. The only real change was the disappearance of the dress swords and these were replaced by sword-sticks which were cunningly disguised as simple walking canes."
Woman's Costume
"After the Revolution, woman's costume in France moved towards simplicity and freedom from both moral and physical restrictions. The new mode was pioneered by Medames Recamier and Tallien who were the leaders of the new Parisian social set known as as les merveilleuses. The ladies' clothes showed a much more definite break with the past the did those of their male counterparts, les incroyables. Panniers, bum-rolls, corsets and even petticoats were abandoned completely. From 18790 to the turn of the century, woman wore a style known as robe en chemise which, as the name suggests, resembles the undergarment of the previous century. Never since the ancient Egypt had society ladies never seen in such a state of undress. So sheer was the material used for these gowns that, for the sake of decency, they were sometimes worn with flesh-coloured tights. The robe en chemise worn with open sandals was an attempt by Parisian ladies to copy the costume of the ancient Greeks.
They looked towards Greece not only for aesthetic inspiration but also for a philosophy upon which to base their new republic. In fact this outfit bore only the most superficial resemblance to the Greek chiton. No self-respecting Greek woman would ever have appeared in public in this state of near nudity. During the early 1970s he gown was at its very simplest, a slender shift of sheer muslin, gathered at the neck and under the breasts which gave it an extremely short waist, in contrast to the elongated waists of the previous decade. This became a feature of the early nineteenth century which, together with the sheerness of the fabric, led to the famous couplet:
Shepherds, i have lost my waist;
Have ye seen my body.
Necklines varied considerably but, at their most extreme, these early gowns certainly revealed more of the breasts than they concealed. The modesty-pieces, which had covered the decolletage during the 1780s, were no longer any aid to modesty. There were smaller and became a neckcloth similar to a man's stock. Most sleeves were very short and puffed, but others, in an attempt to copy the chiton, had open sleeves fastened with a row of small brooches. The same purists insisted on wearing open sandals with criss-cross ribbons extending up the lower leg. Skirts were generally very long, and the excess material from the hem was loosely draped over the forearm, effectively exposing the lower leg.
The whole outfit was obviously quite unsuitable for the northern climate, a situation which was aggravated by the practice of dampening the gown so that the material would cling more closely to the body, Carlyle described a lady of the time thus: 'Behold her, that beautiful citoyenne, in costume of the ancient Greeks, such Greek as painter David could teach; sweeping tresses snooded by the antique fillet; bright dyed tunic of the Greek woman; her little feet naked as in antique sandals and winding strings of riband-defying the frost.'
The fashion was not, of course, peculiar to Paris or even France. Rose Betin, the Parisian dress designer during the Terror and introduced it to London where it became all the rage. From there it spread elsewhere in Europe and indeed to America.
After 1800 the vogue for the extremely flimsy outfits began to wane. Some dresses were still made from muslin and other diaphanous materials, but court gowns reverted to traditional fabrics such as satin and velvet; gowns for the less wealthy and more conservative were once again made from printed calico or linen. The basic silhouette remained the same with it high waist, but the cut was considerably more sophisticated-the gown was now neatly tailored over the bust. The early gowns had been cut from a single piece of material, but now dressmakers reverted to the practice of cutting the bodice and skirts separately and then joining them together into a single garment.
Necklines were still generally cut low and square. The skirts of court gowns were long, reaching the ground at the front and forming a train behind, but for daytime wear they were about ankle length or a couple of inches shorter, and were rather more flared than they had previously been. Borders and hems were often embroidered, and skirts were sometimes flounced. Sleeves were going short and puffed, and they usually ended half-way down the upper arm.
Even before the turn of the century some women, particularly those who needed them, had returned to corsets. As fabrics became less transparent there was a universal return to underwear of all types, but there was nothing noticeably new about there form or design. Corsets stretched from hip level to below the bust, pushing the breasts upwards. Chemises were much in the style of those of the mid-eighteenth century, and the only new arrival to this area of dress was drawers. This was the first time that trouser-type underwear had ever been worn by women in western Europe and, despite the fact that they undoubtedly offered more protection against exposure, they were frowned upon as being immodest. Drawers developed into pantaloons, which were quite tight-fitting undergarments fastening just below the nee. Later, presumably as a concession to femininity, the name was changed to pantalettes.
Some woman remained rigidly faithful to the neo-classical mode well into the nineteenth century with the result that sandals were still in evidence. The most popular mode for footwear after 1800, however, was a simple low-sided, heelless slipper in either satin or soft leather. It had a short, rounded toe which was often decorated with either a small ribbon or a panel of embroidery.
During the 1790s, outer garments were necessary than ever before, with gowns offering no protection against elements. A number of different styles emerged. There was a great vogue for cashmere shawls but, as war made trade routes with the East increasingly hazardous, imitations were produced on a large scale both in France and in Scotland. The pelisse was a totally new outdoor garment which was cut as a coat-gown usually about three-quarter-length with raglan sleeves and lined with fur. Woman also wore a version of the male great-coat, the redingote, which was fitted with two or more overlapping shoulder capes and afforded considerable protection in wet weather. For less extreme conditions, the spencer was very fashionable. This was a very short, single-breasted jacket, originally from England which covered the bodice of the gown. Some of these jackets were sleeveless, others were fitted with tight, wrist-length sleeves, but all were fitted with buttons from neck-line to hem, although they were usually worn unfastened. other than smaller outer garments included the pelerine, a cape which covered the shoulders, scarves and fur boas.
Hair, hats and accessories
After 1790 the wide frizzed hairstyles of the previous period vanished, as did the powder wigs. In their place came several different styles. There were a number of pseudo-classical coiffures which consisted of masses of ringlets held in place with a bandeau. This in itself was a reasonable approximation to some ancient Greek styles, but the effect was ruined by a huge vertical plume which invariably accompanied it. During the Terror there was a vogue for cutting the hair very short in a style called a la victime. This style emulated victims of the guillotine, whose hair was cut away from the nape of the neck to ensure that the head would be severed cleanly. With this somewhat ironically macabre style people appropriately wore a narrow red ribbon round their necks.
Towards the turn of the century a new variety of neo-classical hairstyle appeared which was, judging from contemporary portraits, slightly more like the Greek original. A portion of the hair was brushed forward over the forehead and the rest scraped back and tied into a chignon of curls. The similarity was strengthened by the addition of various Greek-inspired hair ornaments.
During this period of 25 years, women adopted a wide range of headwear. Mop caps, which had first appeared in the mid-eighteenth century, were made in silk trimmed with ribbon and were still very fashionable for daytime wear. For evening wear, they were largely replaced by turbans, which were often made in patterned fabric to match either the gown or shawl and, like the early hairstyles, were usually decorated with a plume or aigrette.
The wide-brimmed picture hats of the 1780s vanished with the broad hairstyles, and the high-crowned hat of the same period was now owe only as art of the riding habit. In their place came a wide range of bonnets, predominately of straw. Most were of moderate proportions and ties under the chin with a coloured ribbon, but les merveilleuses adopted a most extraordinary line of headwear known as a poke or poking-hat. This was a form of bonnet, but it had an enormous brim which extended far beyond the wearer's face.
Perhaps the most important accessory adopted by women during this period was the reticule-or 'ridicule' as it was known by cynics of the day. This was a small handbag used to carry money, handkerchiefs and other small personal effects. It was first carried in the early 1790s with the mode a la grecque which had no room for belt-purses or any other similar containers. Reticules were made in a wide variety of materials and varies in size from an average twentieth-century handbag.
Parasols continued to be fashionable; some were short and carried on a strap round the wrist, others were longer and doubled as walking sticks. They were usually made in cane covered with either glazed paper or embroidered silk. Gloves were another important accessory throughout the period. They were long, elbow-length or even longer, reaching to within about two inches of the short puff-sleeves of the gown. White was the favorite colour, but gloves were sometimes decorated with embroidery on the back of the hand and at the top of the sleeve section. Muffs were still carried and they were even larger than they had been earlier in the century. Most were made in a combination of fur, but some were made in a combination of fur and shirred silk. Folding fans of richly decorated silk were similar to those carries in the previous period.
During the Terror jewels were most definitely out of favour. They, above all else, represented the ostentation so much despised by the new regime. Even a simple silver shoe buckle invited trouble. There were three or four exceptions which were regarded as symbols of royalty rather than jewels as we understand them today. The cropped hairstyles left the ears exposed, and there was a vogue for earrings made from various base metals in the form of guillotines. A special finger ring, called a bague a la marat, was also permissible. These rings were made in copper and carried three plaques representing the martyrs of liberty; Marat, le Pellier de St Fargeau and Chalier.
When Napoleon provided France with a court once again, attitudes changed completely. The Emperor himself and his wife were inordinately fond of jewels and spent vast sums on them. Napoleon recovered almost all the stones from the old French crown jewels and had them re-set for Josephine.
BLACK, J.A., GARLAND, M. and KENNETT, F., 1983. A history of fashion. Rev. ed. / J. Anderson Black, Madge Garland & Frances Kennett. ed. London: Orbis
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